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THEMES


Hardy develops several themes in The Mayor of Casterbridge. Some are related to the story of Michael Henchard himself. Others are related to Hardy's sense of history or of literary tradition.



THE SIN OF HUBRIS

Like many of the great tragic heroes in literature, Michael Henchard suffers from excessive pride. The Greeks called this sin hubris. Hubris involves a combination of excessive pride, ambition, and self- confidence. In a sense, a tragic hero creates his own sense of morality that may run counter to the basic moral rules of the society. The punishment for hubris is often a slow and painful death, in which the hero must first be stripped of personal possessions and public favor.
Hardy illustrates Henchard's excessive pride throughout the novel, from his blaming liquor for his having sold his wife, to his concealing the real reason behind his oath of abstinence, to his refusing to take the loss in the sale of the bad wheat, to his "buying back" Susan with five guineas, to his lies to Elizabeth-Jane and Newson. Ironically, even the will he leaves shows his pride. He asks to be forgotten completely rather than be remembered as a man who had flaws.
Because of his hubris, Henchard loses his wealth, his social position, and his chances at being loved. He leaves Casterbridge dressed as a hay-trusser, just as he was when he first entered the town.

THE WORKING OF FATE

Hardy came from a religious background, and his architectural career was spent in restoring churches. He admired the security of Christian faith. Yet he was also drawn to the writings of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer about evolution and religious skepticism. He eventually began to doubt his own faith. Without a God controlling the universe, he felt, people had no spiritual force to rely on for comfort or to "blame" for their problems. Hardy grew to believe that what happened to people was determined by fate; people could not really overcome fate. Thus, what seem to be coincidences that occur in one's life (and numerous coincidences plague Michael Henchard in The Mayor of Casterbridge) are actually events controlled by an unknown, and often uncaring, outside force. In his poem "Hap," Hardy refers to such forces as "purblind doomsters" who just as easily strew "blisses about my pilgrimage as pain." This dominance of fate creates a sense of emptiness or loneliness in Hardy's Wessex. Surviving in Wessex involves learning to accept one's fate and living within it, something Henchard never learns how to do.
Fate plays a major role in The Mayor of Casterbridge. Henchard thinks he is in control of his life, but he is unable to avoid matters that lead to turning points in his life- a furmity woman who laces her concoction with rum, a long-lost wife who wanders back into his life, a poorly sealed letter that reveals his true daughter's death, the arrest of the furmity woman in Casterbridge, the poorly closed packet of letters, the appearances of Newson. Henchard's indomitable belief that he can somehow overcome his fate makes him stand out as a special person. He has a nobility that cannot be totally destroyed. But his ultimate failure may be a sign of Hardy's own sense of depression over the loss of religious faith.

PESSIMISM

Closely related to the dominance of a malevolent fate in the novel is the feeling of pessimism that is evident throughout. Hardy conveys this sense of pessimism in two ways- through images and through characterization. Look for repeated images of rain and darkness in the book. They nearly always accompany downturns in Henchard's fortunes. Also notice how Henchard's appearance and feelings of self-worth deteriorate as he is punished for his hubris. Increasingly, he begins to doubt his own strength as he regards the world with greater pessimism.
As readers, we also grow increasingly pessimistic about the ability of a person- even a strong man such as Henchard- to succeed in this world. Survival is the best a person can hope for. And survival doesn't mean real joy or happiness, as Hardy notes in the final two pages of the book; it means finding a "latitude of calm weather."

TRADITION VS. MODERNIZATION

In Hardy's lifetime, England was rapidly becoming industrialized. Hardy felt that something important was being lost through modernization. That's why he set most of his novels in preindustrial times and in an agricultural region.
In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Henchard represents the traditional ways of working and doing business. He makes deals with handshakes and bases business deals on hunches or prophesies. Farfrae, on the other hand, represents modern methods. He introduces technology to the town and keeps careful business records.
Much of the novel is built around the contrasting attitudes and actions of Henchard and Farfrae. Through his focus on the two men, Hardy makes the major social statement of his book. Farfrae, the man of technology and modern business methods, displaces Henchard, the man of tradition and superstition. Farfrae's name tells you a lot about him. He is a free man from far away, bringing distant and free ideas into a tradition-locked area of England. In much the same way, the Industrial Age is rapidly taking over in Wessex and in all England, replacing the traditional agricultural society of the past centuries.

PARALLELS TO THE STORY OF SAUL AND DAVID

The interaction between Henchard and Farfrae strongly echoes the biblical story of Saul and David. Saul is the outsider who becomes king of Israel and whose major characteristics are pride and jealousy. Music soothes him over his moments of bad temper. He is a man of brawn who does not always think clearly before he acts. David, the musician, begins as Saul's comforter and eventually replaces him as king. He is a man of creativity and reason. Notice how these characteristics compare to those of Henchard and Farfrae. For example, look at the role that music plays in the novel. Farfrae is a brilliant singer, and Henchard is drawn to music. Also, note Henchard's bullying attitudes (especially toward Farfrae) and contrast them with Farfrae's more sensitive approach.
The story of Saul and David also symbolizes the replacement of the old order by the new. By utilizing biblical images, Hardy once again shows the conflict between tradition and modernization.

ILLUSION VS. REALITY

Nearly all of the main characters in The Mayor of Casterbridge put on a front. As readers, we know or suspect their true identities, and we wait for the truth to surface. Hardy presents many hints that foreshadow the reality behind the illusions. As you read, you might want to see how good a detective you are. Jot down any hints of illusions that you see and your suspicions about the truth. Then see how many of your suspicions are confirmed. Hardy also interplays illusion and reality in his description of the skimmity-ride. Lucetta narrates the scene, and the events seem to take place more in her head than on the street below her window. Reread that scene carefully. Can you explain why the paraders just seem to disappear into thin air?

Adam Bede

http://www.academon.com/lib/essay/adam-bede.html (http://www.academon.com/lib/essay/adam-bede.html)

http://www.gettysburg.edu/~sflynn/teaching/Mayor1.html (http://www.gettysburg.edu/~sflynn/teaching/Mayor1.html)
Student Impression Papers on The Mayor of Casterbridge

http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/eliot/bede/bede-1.html (http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/eliot/bede/bede-1.html)

Adam Bede(text)

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-1.html (http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-1.html)

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-1.html (http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-1.html)

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Study Help
Essay Topics and Review Questions


1. Show how one bad choice--Arthur and Hetty's illicit love--affects the lives of Adam, Arthur, Hetty, and Dinah. How does this illustrate Eliot's theory of ethical determinism?


2. Compare the thoroughness with which one of the central figures and one of the background ones are characterized. What conclusions can you draw about the development of literary character?


3. Comment upon the use of symbolism in Adam Bede.

4. Eliot insists in Adam Bede that she is aiming for realism. How well do you think she succeeds?

5. Adam Bede has been referred to as a psychological novel. Discuss the relevance of this term.

6. Who is to blame for the conflict on which the novel centers? Hetty? Arthur? Both? Do both character and circumstance play a part?

7. Discuss Mrs. Poyser as a comic character.

8. Eliot has written, "It is the habit of my imagination to strive after as full a vision of the medium in which a character moves as of the character itself." How well does she succeed in this aim?

9. "Whereas Dickens . . . did not forget to mix pleasure with edification, in George Eliot's hands the novel was not primarily for entertainment but for the serious discussion of moral issues." Explain.

10. Comment upon Adam Bede as a criticism of classed society.

11. Show how the appearance-reality theme runs through the novel. What is its function?

12. Eliot has said, "My artistic bent is directed not at all to the presentation of eminently irreproachable characters, but to the presentation of mixed human beings in such a way as to call forth tolerant judgment, pity, and sympathy." Comment on any of the central characters in the light of this statement.

13. Analyze the structure of Adam Bede according to its division into books.

14. Discuss the novel's moral viewpoint as revealed in Dinah's and Mr. Irwine's words and actions.

15. Do you find the ending of the novel satisfactory in the light of the story as a whole? Why or why not?

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Study Questions
1. The Mayor of Casterbridge tells the story of one man’s fall and another’s rise. Indeed, Henchard’s fortune seems inversely proportional to Farfrae’s: whatever Henchard loses, Farfrae gains. Is this a believable exchange? If not, is there something more important than realism suggested by Henchard’s relationship with Farfrae?

In terms of realism, the relationship between Henchard and Farfrae seems too finely plotted to be wholly credible. Given Farfrae’s -charisma, we might believe that he succeeds in winning the heart of E-J and even in detracting from Henchard’s business by winning the hearts of the citizens of Casterbridge. But his successful seduction of lUCCITA, his succession to the seat of mayor, his purchase of Henchard’s house, and his acquisition of Henchard’s furniture convey the feeling that the characters are puppets being conveniently manipulated by the author. The predetermined nature of main characters’ reversals of fortunes suggests that realism was not Hardy’s first priority. Indeed, the relationship between Henchard and Farfrae carries symbolic weight. When they clash, their disagreement represents a conflict between age and youth, tradition and innovation, and emotion and reason. Henchard, for example, is the mayor of a town that has remained untouched by the scientific, philosophical, or technological advances of the age. -Cas-terbridge exists in a sort of bubble, and Henchard rules it accordingly. He manages his books in his head, conducts business by word of mouth, and employs weather-prophets—already obsolete in many parts of the country—to determine the success of a harvest. When Farfrae arrives, he brings a new system of organization that revolutionizes Casterbridge’s grain business, making it more efficient and dependent on developing agricultural technologies. In his proud display of the automatic seeder to a disdainful Henchard, there is clearly more at stake than the friendship between two men.

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2. Discuss the role of coincidence in the novel. Many critics of Hardy have argued that the astonishing coincidences throughout The Mayor of Casterbridge make the story improbable and unbelievable. Do you think this is the case?

By Chapter III, in which SUSAN learns her husband’s whereabouts from the same furmity-woman who witnessed their shameful parting eighteen years earlier, unlikely coincidences already play an important role in the novel. Such strange occurrences accumulate rapidly: F., who has a secret for salvaging grown wheat, passes by the Three Mariners Inn just as H. cries out for a solution to his damaged crop; Henchard finds the letter revealing that he is noT E-J’s father only moments after he pledges his paternal devotion to her; Elizabeth-Jane meets LU.because she strolls past Susan’s grave when Lucetta is studying Susan’s headstone. These incidents do detract from the realism of Henchard’s story: no one, not even the most generous reader, could deny Hardy’s reliance on outlandish coincidences to propel the narrative. Because many novels were published in serial form, Victorian novelists depended upon such effects in order to hook their readers and boost future sales. In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy’s plotting relates directly to the plight of his main character: the coincidences that often serve to push the mayor closer to destruction form the machinery of a world bent, as Henchard observes time and again, on human

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Suggested Essay Topics
1. Hardy described himself as a determinist—in other words, he believed that the course of human life was shaped by forces, internal or external, beyond human control. Does this philosophy hold true in The Mayor of Casterbridge? What forces are responsible for shaping Henchard’s life?
2. Is Henchard a tragic character? Why or why not? Does he possess a tragic flaw that leads to his downfall? If so, what is it?
3. Discuss the similarities between Elizabeth-Jane and Farfrae, as well as those between Henchard and Lucetta. What effects does Hardy achieve through these pairings?
4. Is Henchard a sympathetic character? Should we pity him at the end of the novel, or does he seem to get exactly what he deserves?

Important Quotations Explained
1. The difference between the peacefulness of interior nature and the wilful hostilities of mankind was very apparent at this place. In contrast with the harshness of the act just ended within the tent was the sight of several horses crossing their necks and rubbing each other lovingly as they waited in patience to be harnessed for the homeward journey. Outside the fair, in the valleys and woods, all was quiet. The sun had recently set, and the west heaven was hung with rosy cloud, which seemed permanent, yet slowly changed. To watch it was like looking at some grand feat of stagery from a darkened auditorium. In presence of this scene after the other there was a natural instinct to abjure man as the blot on an otherwise kindly universe; till it was remembered that all terrestrial conditions were intermittent, and that mankind might some night be innocently sleeping when these quiet objects were raging loud.


In Chapter I, after selling his wife and daughter to a sailor for five guineas, Michael Henchard steps out of the furmity-merchant’s tent and considers the world described above. Here, Hardy employs his talent for description that serves to make the physical world of the characters real and accessible, while carrying a symbolic meaning that resonates with the larger themes of the work as a whole. First, he evokes beautifully the natural world of Weydon-Priors: the horses, the surrounding woods, the “rosy cloud[s]” at sunset. With the patient horses that rub their necks lovingly and stand as a counterpoint to Henchard’s patently unloving treatment of his wife, the passage departs from strict realism and veers toward symbolism. By contrasting the human and natural worlds in this way and determining that “all terrestrial conditions were intermittent,” that love and hate, kindness and cruelty are in constant flux, Hardy effectively sets the stage for his drama.

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2. He advertised about the town, in long posters of a pink colour, that games of all sorts would take place here; and set to work a little battalion of men under his own eye. They erected greasy-poles for climbing, with smoked hams and local cheeses at the top. They placed hurdles in rows for jumping over; across the river they laid a slippery pole, with a live pig of the neighborhood tied at the other end, to become the property of the man who could walk over and get it. There were also provided wheelbarrows for racing, donkeys for the same, a stage for boxing, wrestling, and drawing blood generally; sacks for jumping in.


Several times throughout the novel, Hardy evokes details of a kind of life that was becoming extinct even as he described it.

Casterbridge is a town situated between two times: the age of simple, agricultural England and the epoch of modern, industrialized England. The drama enacted betweenMichael Henchardand
Farfraeis, in part, the conflict between tradition and innovation, between the past and the future. Given enough time, the strongest traditions will fade as surely as memories of the past. Thus, Hardy plays the part of the amateur anthropologist, recalling rather fondly the details of rural living that were eclipsed by the advent of modern technologies. In Chapter XVI, he colorfully describes the day of celebration that Henchard plans. It is a world of simple pleasures—smoked hams and local cheeses—a world in which neighbors have not yet succumbed to the brutal competitiveness of industrial capitalism but instead share ownership of livestock. It is essentially a romantic and nostalgic view of a world that, even during Hardy’s time, no longer existed. Nevertheless, Hardy cannot resist including details that confirm his understanding of the brutality of the universe, as in the cruelty inherent in such pastimes as “boxing, wrestling, and drawing blood generally.”
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3. Character is Fate, said Novalis, and Farfrae’s character was just the reverse of Henchard’s, who might not inaptly be described as Faust has been described—as a vehement gloomy being who had quitted the ways of vulgar men without light to guide him on a better way.


This passage from Chapter XVII relates to
Farfrae’s enormous business success after
Michael Henchardrequests that he leave his employment and stop courting
Elizabeth-Jane. The phrase “Character is Fate,” from Novalis, an eighteenth-century German novelist and poet, offers us a context for understanding much of Henchard’s ensuing struggle. Henchard blames much of the suffering he endures on cruel forces that are bent on human destruction. In Chapter XVII, however, Hardy reminds the reader that Henchard has much to do with his own downfall. In the same chapter, we read that “there was still the same unruly volcanic stuff beneath the rind of Michael Henchard as when he had sold his wife at Weydon Fair.” This “volcanic stuff” refers to Henchard’s passionate disposition. Whatever he feels—be it love, hate, desire, or contempt—he feels it overpoweringly. The same holds true for his guilt over selling
Susan, which tracks him from Weydon-Priors to Casterbridge, where it overshadows his life for twenty years. His desire to right these past wrongs and his conviction that he deserves to suffer for them account for his suffering as much as any malignant force of the universe.

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4. MICHAEL HENCHARD’S WILL
That Elizabeth-Jane Farfrae be not told of my death, or made to grieve on account of me.
& that I be not bury’d in consecrated ground.
& that no sexton be asked to toll the bell.
& that nobody is wished to see my dead body.
& that no murners walk behind me at my funeral.
& that no flours be planted on my grave.
& that no man remember me.
To this I put my name.
Michael Henchard

In his introduction to Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge, Harold Bloom cites the above passage, taken from the novel’s final chapter, as the most powerful and eloquent of all of Hardy’s writing. Indeed, there is a remarkable power and beauty in the simplicity of these lines.
Michael Henchard'S will is the tragic last statement of a tragic man whose unremitting doubts regarding his life’s worth not only lead to his death but also follow him there. From the moment Henchard sells his wife at the Weydon fair, he feels a keen anxiety over the value of his name. He pledges a twenty-one-year reprieve from alcohol and sets himself on a course that delivers him to the most honored business and social offices of a small country town. Unsatisfied with this seeming reformation of himself, however, he continues to let his guilt eat away at him and eventually relinquishes the name and reputation he has built for himself. His last wish, to be allowed to die anonymously and to go unremembered, is the ultimate gesture of a man who craves good repute but doubts his own worth.

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5. Her experience had been of a kind to teach her, rightly or wrongly, that the doubtful honour of a brief transit through a sorry world hardly called for effusiveness, even when the path was suddenly irradiated at some half-way point by daybeams rich as hers. But her strong sense that neither she nor any human being deserved less than was given, did not blind her to the fact that there were others receiving less who had deserved much more. And in being forced to class herself among the fortunate she did not cease to wonder at the persistence of the unforeseen, when the one to whom such unbroken tranquillity had been accorded in the adult stage was she whose youth had seemed to teach that happiness was but the occasional episode in a general drama of pain.


These lines make up the final passage of the novel and provide a thoughtful, balanced summary of its proceedings.
Elizabeth-Janedecides to honor
Michael Henchard's last wishes as best she can. She does not mourn him or plant flowers on his grave. She does, however, come close to honoring him inwardly, when she reflects here on the unfair distribution of happiness, which she considers the most valuable human currency. Her reflection mitigates Henchard’s obsession with the worth of his name and reputation, for in the face of such a “sorry world,” all honor seems “doubtful.” But it also grants the fallen mayor a quiet, unassuming kind of forgiveness. She certainly has Henchard in mind when she thinks of the many people who “deserved much more” out of life. Indeed, given that the world emerges as “a general drama of pain,” both we and Elizabeth-Jane begin to understand better Henchard’s disastrous mistakes and missteps. Even his lie regarding
Newson becomes less grievous when we consider that he meant only to secure a happiness that had, for so many years, eluded him. In such a bleak world, the course of Henchard’s life seems not to merit punishment so much as it does pity.

PLOT STRUCTURE ANALYSIS
The Mayor of Casterbridge, one of Hardy's most renowned works, focuses almost entirely on the rise and fall of Michael Henchard. There are no digressions to divert the reader's attention from his story; even the sub-plots of the book include Henchard. It is fortunate that Henchard appears in almost every chapter to hold the book together, for the plot is lightly knit, only giving a vague impression of unity.
The plot develops in a typical bell-shaped curve. The first chapters introduce the main characters and give a flashback to reveal how Henchard sold his wife and daughter. Once Susan returns to Casterbridge, the rising action begins, as Henchard meets with one challenge after another. His main concern, however, is to hide his past so his good reputation and fortune in Casterbridge will not be lost. The climax occurs in the courtroom scene when the 'furmity woman' exposes his past. From that point forward in the novel, the falling action shows a series of events that rapidly lead Henchard into losing everything, including his good name, his business, his home, and his daughter. The conclusion centers around Henchard's pathetic death and will and Susan's ironic attempt to find him and ask forgiveness.
The plot is further unified by a single main setting. The action, except for the first two chapters, takes place in Casterbridge. The characters are also woven tightly together, with many overlapping relationships: Henchard has a relationship with Lucetta, who also has a relationship with Farfrae. At the time that Lucetta first flirts with Farfrae, Elizabeth-Jane is seeing him. Lucetta is well aware of that fact, because Elizabeth-Jane stays with her. Elizabeth-Jane, of course, is Henchard's stepdaughter, and Farfrae is his rival. The closeness of all the main characters helps to strengthen and unify the plot.
Since this novel was written in installments, it is easy to understand why so much suspense is used in the plot from chapter to chapter. The chapters are short with a lot of action packed into each of them. Many of the chapters are filled with dramatic scenes, especially the ones in the courtroom where the 'furmity woman' exposes Henchard's past, where Henchard is reading his letters aloud to Farfrae, where the skimmity-ride takes place, and where Henchard attempts at a reconciliation with Elizabeth-Jane on her wedding day. Each of these scenes is filled with a sense of pathos to draw the tragic novel together. There are also repeated, detailed descriptions of the inhabitants, neighborhoods, and architecture of Casterbridge, forming a motif throughout the novel. The reader is made to vividly see the Ring, the two bridges, the courtroom, and Mixen Lane. Many critics view the descriptions as interrupting the narrative, but they are essential in so far as they give a vivid presentation of the setting and keep the pace of the story from spiraling out of control. Hardy also uses an omniscient narrator, who gives his own comments on characters and situations, to control the pace of the plot.

plots are realistically portrayed, Hardy uses a great deal of coincidence in The Mayor of Casterbridge. Susan's return after eighteen years, the reappearance of the 'furmity woman'," and Newson's return are glaring examples of improbability. These coincidences emphasize Hardy's belief that man is not in control of his own destiny, but is ruled by Fate.

THEMES - THEME ANALYSIS
The Relation between Character and Fate in The Mayor of Casterbridge:
In all of Hardy's novels, character, society, nature, chance, fate and coincidence are responsible for the tragic human situation. In The Mayor of Casterbridge character plays a far greater role than Fate in bringing about Henchard's tragedy. Henchard's misfortunes result from his own deeds and actions. Though Fate plays an important role in the story, Henchard's character plays a much greater role. When the story opens, the reader sees that Henchard is a poor, ambitious, rash, and impulsive young man, who, in a drunken state, sells his wife and child. His past catches up with him more than twenty years later, in the shape of the 'furmity woman' who accelerates his downfall. Thus, the reader witnesses an example of how Henchard's own actions are responsible for his misfortune.
Henchard's pride cannot accept the fact that Farfrae has become more popular and successful than he. As a result, he completely breaks off his relationship with Farfrae and does not allow the courtship between Farfrae and Elizabeth-Jane to progress. Had he been less impulsive and more reasonable, Henchard would have continued to prosper because Farfrae was never against him, not viewing Henchard as a rival. But Henchard does everything possible to get the best of Farfrae, challenging him to a wrestling match and contemplating murdering the successful, young man. Fate intervenes, however, to make Henchard come to his senses.
Henchard does not treat Elizabeth-Jane much better than he treats Farfrae. When he learns that Elizabeth-Jane is not his biological daughter, he becomes very cold towards her, making her want to move out of his house and leave him isolated and lonely. When he realizes how much he loves and misses her, fate again comes into play, for she has learned about his lie to Newson and wants nothing to do with him. He tries to reconcile with her on her wedding day, even taking her a caged goldfinch for a wedding present. Unfortunately, he leaves it outside and does not retrieve it when Elizabeth-Jane states she wants nothing to do with her stepfather. Then fate again kicks into control. Elizabeth-Jane finds the goldfinch and realizes it was a token of her father's repentance; but it is too late for the goldfinch and Henchard, for both have died.
Nature plays a fateful role in The Mayor of Casterbridge as the fluctuations of weather are witnessed twice in the novel. Once, the rain ruins Henchard preparations for a grand entertainment, which furthers Henchard's jealousy for Farfrae who has prepared for rain; another time, Henchard speculates heavily on the weather and loses. As a result, Henchard faces bankruptcy.
Fate, in the guise of coincidence, has a greater impact on Henchard's fortunes. Had Susan not returned, Henchard might have married Lucetta and lived peacefully for the rest of his life. Similarly, just when Henchard reveals his paternity to Elizabeth- Jane, he finds Susan's unsealed letter and makes the discovery that she is, in fact, Newson's daughter. It is by coincidence that he finds the letter, and it is also coincidence that he is tempted to read the letter because it is unsealed.
When Henchard finally accepts Elizabeth-Jane, he becomes dependent on her for love. Fate intervenes again, and Newson appears on the scene. The meeting between Farfrae and Lucetta is also the result of a coincidence, for she just happens to be alone and available for conversation. Although the reader sees the arbitrary and pernicious workings of Fate upon the destinies of man, Hardy also implies that Henchard and Lucetta are responsible for their own destinies.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Hardy calls Michael Henchard "a man of Character" What does this expression mean and how apt a description of Henchard is it?
2. To what extent is character and to what extent is Fate responsible for the tragedy in The Mayor of Casterbridge?
3. Explain the structure of The Mayor of Casterbridge.
4. Explain how Elizabeth-Jane is developed in the novel.
5. Give Hardy's philosophy of life as reflected in The Mayor of Casterbridge. 6. "Conspicuously successful as he is in portraying men, he is even more eminently successful in his delineation of women". Do you think that this estimate of Hardy's character portrayal is born out by The Mayor of Casterbridge? Explain why.

. Analyze the character of Donald Farfrae. Do you agree with the opinion that in the delineation of Farfrae's character Hardy disappoints the reader? Give reasons.

8. Explain how Hardy uses contrast in developing his characters in The Mayor of Castebridge.
9. In the novels of Hardy chance, accident, and coincidence play a very important part. Illustrate this in the context of The Mayor of Casterbridge. 10. Explain the role of the rustics in the novel and give examples

11. Hardy uses a series of coincidences- some probable and some improbable- to move the plot along in The Mayor of Casterbridge and to precipitate Henchard's downfall. For example, the story line progresses to Casterbridge in the first place because Henchard leaves a message concerning his whereabouts with the furmity woman, and Susan comes to get the message 17 years later. Farfrae happens to be passing through the town just when Henchard is looking for a business manager, and he happens to overhear Henchard's comments about turning bad wheat into good. Without this series of coincidences, Henchard might never have hired Farfrae, and his downfall might have been averted. The same furmity woman arrives in Casterbridge two years later and reveals Henchard's sin because he is trying her case in court. Her revelation of his auctioning of his family completes his downfall and drives Lucetta into a quick marriage with Farfrae. Susan gives both of her daughters the same name and leaves a poorly sealed note that explains the parentage of both girls. Henchard reads the note just after he has convinced Elizabeth- Jane to accept him as her true father. His reaction to the note affects many of his later actions. The sailor Newson's two appearances in Casterbridge precipitate Henchard's leaving the town for good. The barrage of negative coincidences that seem to befall Henchard emphasizes the idea that his doom is sealed from the beginning.
12. You can look at the skimmity-ride scene from two different points of view- Hardy's and that of his characters. Hardy uses the skimmity-ride to emphasize the primitive, superstitious side of Casterbridge. The skimmity-ride is an ancient tradition, a mock procession that dates back hundreds of years. The skimmity-ride also provides Hardy with a spectacular way to end Lucetta's involvement in the novel and to complete another strand in Henchard's life while opening a new chapter in Farfrae's. As an apt punishment for Lucetta's hubris, the skimmity-ride emphasizes Hardy's message about living a life of moderation. From the point of view of the different characters in Casterbridge, the skimmity-ride is a way to equalize the class structure, as it allows the lower classes to bring down those in power.
13. Michael Henchard may see himself as a victim of capricious fate, but in great part his own actions cause his downfall. Henchard's excessive pride and quick temper are as responsible for his failings as are the coincidences that continually haunt him. If he didn't allow himself to be plagued by guilt because of his wrong-doings, he might have been able to avoid some of the problems that humble him in the end. He sells his wife and then makes it possible for her to find him again. He remarries Susan and invites new problems into his life. He turns against Elizabeth-Jane when he learns that she isn't his real daughter, rather than try to win her love. He convinces Farfrae to remain in the town and then fires him in a moment of temper. Rather than apologize, he tries to ruin Farfrae and ends up in bankruptcy. He undergoes a battle of wills with Lucetta and finally loses her to Farfrae. He meekly accepts his downfall and goes to work for Farfrae rather than use his energy to seek a new life. He lies to Newson rather than trust Elizabeth-Jane to love both of her "fathers." By every action he takes, Henchard brings himself further and further down. 14. In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Michael Henchard symbolizes tradition and excessive pride, while Elizabeth-Jane Newson and Donald Farfrae symbolize modernization and moderation. Two of Hardy's major themes are the displacement of traditional ways in Casterbridge by more modern methods, and the importance of living a moderate life-style. To these ends, Henchard and Lucetta must be humbled and ultimately destroyed. Farfrae, with his modern business methods and his reliance on reason, promises a new era in Casterbridge. Elizabeth-Jane, with her propriety and moderation and her interest in helping others of all classes, also helps bring a new stability to the town. Both Farfrae and Elizabeth-Jane are survivors, even if they don't display much flair in their lives. Their ultimate triumph shows that Casterbridge will enter the modern world a calmer but less vital place.

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Heart of Darkness

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